Comparison Of Dental Characteristics
One of the most accurate and efficient manners of making an identification or an exclusion with a missing person is through a comparison of dental characteristics. Specialists that work with dental identification are called forensic odontologists, or forensic dentists. While generally a forensic odontologist will formally make a dental comparison for identification, forensic anthropologists are also familiar with the human dentition, and the two disciplines work together closely. When analyzing...
About The Author
Bradley J. Adams, Ph.D., is an expert in the field of forensic anthropology. He is currently the forensic anthropologist for the Office of Chief Medical Examiner OCME in New York City. He is also an adjunct lecturer at Hunter College and Pace University, holds a faculty position at the New York University Medical Center, and frequently lectures in the New York City area on topics relating to forensic anthropology. In his present position with the OCME, Dr. Adams is responsible for all forensic...
Dna Identification
DNA analysis is a recent scientific advance that has made it possible to positively identify previously unidentifiable sets of remains. This technique is used to distinguish between individuals using only samples of their DNA deoxyribonucleic acid , the molecule that encodes genetic information. Since DNA can be extracted from bones and teeth, this type of forensic analysis is very useful in many forensic anthropology cases. It is of particular utility if the bones are very fragmentary, which...
HUMAN NONHUMAN AND HiSTORiC REMAINS
Sometimes, the role of the forensic anthropologist is as simple as determining whether or not bones are human. This is the first thing that a forensic anthropologist must determine after bones are recovered. Usually bones that are found to be nonhuman are not of medicolegal significance, and the case is closed. When the bones are complete, it is usually straightforward and very easy for an osteologist to differentiate between human and nonhuman remains. However, there are still instances that...
Facial Reconstructions
When all other lines of evidence fail, it is possible to make facial reconstructions based on the features of the skull. Some forensic anthropologists specialize in this skill that brings together art and science. In the traditional approach, markers are placed throughout the cranium and mandible as a guide to re-create the soft tissue depth. Clay is then placed over the bone using the markers as guides and the face is modeled. Unless some amount of hair and soft tissue was present with the...
Introduction to Forensic Anthropology
On the 4th of July in 2005, a couple was walking along an access road on Randall's Island in New York City. The man observed a bone near the side of the road and playfully tossed it at his girlfriend. They then became concerned that the bone might actually be human and called the police. Detectives from the New York City Police Department and investigators from the Office of Chief Medical Examiner responded to the scene and noticed other bones scattered in the area that they believed to be...
iDENTiFiCATiON OF US MILITARY PERSONNEL
Another role for forensic anthropologists is in the search for U.S. service members missing as a result of wars and past conflicts. The Joint POW MIA Accounting Command JPAC is responsible for the recovery and identification of missing U.S. soldiers, sailors, airmen, and marines from past conflicts see table below . JPAC is composed of over 400 individuals, both military personnel and civilian employees. The Central Identification Laboratory CIL is the scientific contingent of the organization...
Positive Identification
In Chapter 4, a case was noted in which a skeletonized individual was found in an abandoned building in the Bronx, New York. Using techniques previously discussed, forensic anthropological analysis indicated that it was the body of a 17- to 23-year-old black male who was approximately 73 inches 185 cm tall. Analysis of perimortem trauma revealed two gunshot wounds to the head, indicating that his death was a homicide. A detailed review of the bones for evidence of antemortem trauma revealed...
Further Reading
Most forensic anthropology books that are geared toward the general public i.e., not scientific publications are compilations of interesting case examples. The following are some of the most popular titles and represent a well-rounded account of the types of cases a forensic anthropologist might encounter. Bass, W.M., and J. Jefferson. Death's Acre Inside the Legendary Forensic Lab the Body Farm Where the Dead Do Tell Tales. New York G.P. Putnam Sons, 2003. Koff, C. The Bone Woman A Forensic...
Conclusion
After the analysis is completed and all of the anthropological findings are compiled, the final step in the process is the filing of a case report. A forensic anthropology case report should briefly detail the background of the case, including details of any recovery efforts provide a summary of the analytical findings and then describe exactly how the determinations of age, race ancestry, sex, stature, trauma, and time since death were made. It is important to remember these reports are legal...
Sex Determination
As long as most of the bones are available for analysis, determination of sex from the adult skeleton is generally straightforward and lacks many of the complexities inherent to race ancestry determinations. In the case of sex determination, there are only two choices male or female. Interestingly, the skeletal features allowing for determination of sex are not apparent until after puberty. This means that it is nearly impossible or at least very unreliable to differentiate a young boy from a...
Forensic Anthropology Notes
1. K.S. Field, History of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences 50 Years of Progress 1948-1998. Published for the American Academy of Forensic Sciences West Conshohocken, Pa. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1998 . 2. D.D. Thompson, Forensic Anthropology, in A History of American Physical Anthropology, 1930-1980, ed. F. Spencer New York Academic Press, 1982 , pp. 357-369. 3. D.H. Ubelaker, J. Lawrence Angel and the development of forensic anthropology in the United States, in A...
Xray Identification
Besides dental radiographs, almost any antemortem X-ray of the skeleton can be potentially used to make an identification. Some more common types of antemortem X-rays include those of the head and chest. Radiographs of the head in the anterior-posterior plane will likely reveal outlines of the frontal sinuses. These are air pockets located in the forehead just above the eyes. In X-ray, they are very distinctive and are cauliflower-shaped in appearance. Studies have shown that no two frontal...
Web Sites
American Academy of Forensic Sciences The leading association of forensic specialists in the United States. One component of the organization is the branch of physical anthropology, which includes forensic anthropologists. Many of the most important research papers are published in the Journal of Forensic Sciences. Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team Homepage of the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team, a group of forensic anthropologists working on human rights cases throughout the world. Its...
Applications and Basic Terminology
Forensic anthropology has a diverse range of applications, and every year more and more agencies are acknowledging the skills that a forensic anthropologist can provide to a wide range of circumstances. Most undergraduate college degrees in anthropology require that a variety of courses are taken, including topics in cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical anthropology. Students begin specializing and focusing on forensic anthropology in graduate school. Almost without...
Dental Development
One of the most reliable indicators of subadult age is dental development. While forensic odontologists work exclusively with the teeth and their supporting structures, this is also the realm of the anthropologist. There is even a specialty within the field of anthropology called dental anthropology, although the usual focus is not forensically oriented. Teeth begin to develop before birth, and they continue in various stages of formation and loss until around 18 years of age. By observing the...
Sternal End of the Fourth Ribs
Another useful technique for adult aging uses the form and structure of the sternal end of the fourth rib. Similar to the technique used to analyze the pubic symphysis, phase descriptions of the fourth rib are available along with representative drawings and casts for the male and female exemplars. In young individuals, the sternal end of the fourth rib is basically flat. With age, a pit begins to develop that gradually gets deeper and wider Figure 4.5 . As the pit increases in size, the...
BASiC FORENSiC ANTHROPOLOGY TERMiNOLOGY
In order to understand the basics about forensic anthropology, it is necessary to be familiar with the major bones that compose the human skeleton. In all, there are usually 206 bones in the adult skeleton. The bones of the head cranium, inner ear, mandible, and hyoid consist of 29 different bones. The bones below the head, the postcranial skeleton, account for the remaining 177 bones. A child's skeleton is composed of many more bones, since each element may be composed of several separate...
CALCULATiNG THE NUMBER OF iNDiViDUALS
One of the critical questions that should be asked in situations of commingling is how many people are represented by the remains Based on the preservation of the remains, there are various options for addressing this question. By far the most extensively utilized technique by anthropologists is the minimum number of individuals MNI . The MNI can be calculated from either fragmentary or complete bones. When using the MNI technique, the critical concern is not to count the same individual twice....
TiMiNG OF EVENTS ANTEMORTEM PERiMORTEM AND POSTMORTEM
As part of the anthropological analysis of trauma and time since death, it is very important to consider the timing of events. Three descriptive terms are used for this purpose antemortem, peri-mortem, and postmortem. Antemortem means before death. Observation of antemortem skeletal trauma signifies that the bone is healing or has healed. In most cases, this is not related to the cause of death but may be critical in the identification of a missing person. For example, if someone fractured a...
Recovery Procedures
Usually when someone hears the term archaeology, it either invokes images of Indiana Jones, with whip at the ready, encountering death-defying situations in exotic lands, or, conversely, dust-covered scientists meticulously digging in the dirt with small picks and brushes uncovering ancient artifacts. Of the two, the second scenario is more accurate. Archaeologists are experts at finding buried evidence, usually of past cultures, in order to better understand these groups from the materials...
Fragmentatmn
As bones become broken, the job of the forensic anthropologist gets more complicated. As the degree of fragmentation increases, so does the chance that critical skeletal features will be obliterated. It is for this reason that a forensic anthropologist must treat fragmentary bones like a giant jigsaw puzzle and painstakingly reconstruct the pieces as much as possible. In extreme cases of fragmentation, the determination of whether or not bones are human becomes vastly more complicated. Burning...
DETErMiNATioN oF AGE iN ADuLTS
In early April 2005, an intact skeleton was found in a hidden grave within a storage garage in New York City. The body was FiGURE 4.4 This figure shows the pubic symphysis of a 16-year-old left and the pubic symphysis of a person over 50 years of age right . In the younger individual, pronounced billowing and ridges are present on the surface. Also, note that there is not a distinct rim formed around the face of the symphysis. In the older individual, the billowing and ridges are completely...
OVERViEW OF FORENSiC ANTHROPOLOGY
Forensic anthropology is a component of physical anthropology, the study of human populations from a biological and evolutionary perspective. Physical anthropology is itself a subdiscipline of anthropology, the study of human beings, both their physical characteristics and the nonbiological characteristics that are collectively called culture. Forensic anthropology uses the methods and goals of physical anthropology to study questions of medicolegal significance. In doing this, forensic...
HUMAN RIGHTS ORGANiZATiONS
Other employment opportunities for forensic anthropologists exist in organizations that deal with human rights issues across the globe. Human rights organizations are often involved in the recovery and identification of victims of genocide. The organizations that investigate these crimes are often composed of international scientists. Some active groups in this field include the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team Equipo Argentino de Antropolog a Forense , Physicians for Human Rights, the...
DETERMINATION OF AGE iN SUBADULTS
In October 1996, skeletal remains were found in a wooded area outside of Nashville, Tennessee. Law enforcement officials requested assistance from forensic anthropologists at the University of Tennessee with the recovery and analysis of the bones. Once on the scene, the forensic anthropology team was briefed by detectives. They stated that they believed the bones were those of a missing woman whose husband was a prime suspect in her disappearance. Within seconds of looking at the skull, it was...
Analytical Challenges
Although trite, it is safe to say that the only thing that forensic anthropology cases have in common is that none are the same. Every case presents its own set of unique challenges, and many unusual cases become the responsibility of the forensic anthropologist to sort out. The previous chapters have outlined some of the analytical procedures pertaining to mostly intact, complete skeletons. While it is ideal to have pristine bones available for analysis, in reality, this is seldom the case....
Epiphysis Forensic Anthropology
FiGURE 4.2 The medial end of three clavicles are pictured one unfused left , one partially fused middle, with red arrow marking epiphysis , and one that is fully fused right . but can also be used with older children. As noted earlier, the skeletons of infants and children consist of numerous epiphyses and cartilaginous precursors that signify very early stages of bone development. Due to the developmental state of the skeleton, the bone measurements taken for age estimates do not include the...
COMMiNGUNG
In forensic anthropology, commingling is a term used to signify that the remains of more than one person are mixed together. Generally, commingling occurs as a result of a disaster or when bodies are placed together in a mass grave. In transportation disasters, such as an airplane crash, there is quite often body fragmentation that results in commingling. In a mass grave, bodies are usually placed in the ground in close proximity to each other and without any organization. As a result, recovery...
MEDICAL EXAMINER OR CORONER OFFiCES
In the United States, there are two systems that handle medicolegal investigations of death medical examiners and coroners. Medical examiners are usually physicians who are trained in forensic pathology and have expertise in performing forensic autopsies. Coroners, on the other hand, are elected officials that do not need to have any medical training commonly, they are funeral directors . A coroner will consult with a forensic pathologist when he or she determines that it is warranted. Each...
Epiphyseal Fusion
As the skeleton of a child develops, the bones undergo many changes. As noted in Chapter 2, an immature long bone is composed ofa diaphysis the shaft ofthe bone and at least two epiphyses the bony cap that forms on each end of the bone . The diaphyses and the epiphyses are not initially attached to each other, allowing for the bones to grow in length. At some point, the body determines that the bones have reached their maximum dimensions and growth stops through the fusion of the epiphyses with...
Documentation
As part of the excavation strategy, meticulous documentation in the form of photographs, notes, and sketch maps are essential. Figure 3.2 The profile left and plan right maps above were drawn to illustrate the location of a homicide victim within a clandestine grave. Careful documentation of evidence bones and associated artifacts in both horizontal and vertical dimensions allows for some degree of spatial reconstruction of the site. It is also important to document information about the...
TIME SiNCE DEATH
There are changes that occur to the body very soon after death that can provide a very precise postmortem interval. Some of these include stiffness of the muscles rigor mortis , cooling of the body temperature algor mortis , and pooling of blood based on gravitational forces livor mortis . Since these changes are associated with the first 48 hours after death, it would be unusual for a forensic anthropologist to be consulted in such cases. As the putrefactive changes advance, the time since...
Pubic Symphysis
Perhaps one of the most straightforward techniques of adult age estimation involves the assessment of the pubic symphysis. The pubic symphyses are located on the pubic bone of the hip and form the anterior junction between the two halves of the pelvis. Different variations of the assessment have been proposed, but all are based on the changes of the symphyses that occur with age. These transitional changes from youthful to elderly are gradual, allowing for reasonably precise age estimates based...
William M Bass PhD
Every forensic anthropologist, and most archaeologists, own a well-used copy of William Bass's laboratory and field manual Human Osteology. In 1971, Dr. Bass took over the anthropology program at the University of Tennessee and became the state forensic anthropologist Figure 6.7 . One question that always perplexed Dr. Bass involved the determination of time since death. It is always one of the first questions asked by law enforcement personnel, and one that Dr. Bass found intriguing. There was...
Assessing Trauma and Time Since Death
Besides the biological profile, a forensic anthropologist is often called upon to assist in the assessment of trauma as well as the time since death. Trauma analysis may reveal evidence regarding injuries that occurred during life or injuries that could be attributed to the individual's cause of death. There are even situations when the trauma occurs after death, such as with dismemberment of a corpse. Regardless of the timing, the bones will retain valuable clues to help decipher these events....
Excavation
In archaeology, the law of superposition states that as layers of soil accumulate, the deeper layers and the items associated with these layers are older than the ones encountered above them. The study of soil layers is called stratigraphy. Burial pits disturb these strata soil layers and create a new, younger feature that now either cuts through or is located above the previously existing levels. If many years pass after the grave is dug, it is possible that a new and still younger layer will...
Glossary
Anatomical position Standardized orientation for a person's body. The individual is situated in a standing or laying position with his or her arms at his or her sides and palms facing forward. Anterior The front part of a bone when the body is in anatomical position. Articulation The union of two skeletal elements along a joint or suture. For example, the femur articulates with the tibia at the knee joint. Biological profile A person's demographic information, including his or her age, sex,...
Site Location
different techniques depending on the site parameters. In order to perform an initial search for a clandestine hidden grave, it may be possible to interpret the soil using either high-tech or rudimentary techniques. For example, if investigators believe that the body of a missing person has been buried within a large field, it may be feasible to use high-tech equipment like ground penetrating radar GPR . GPR transmits high-frequency radio waves into the ground and creates a map of underground...
Biological Profile Age
After bones are returned to the laboratory setting for analysis, it is up to the forensic anthropologist to analyze the remains and determine as much as possible about the person from whom they originated. Specifically, they analyze the skeletal features that determine the biological profile. The big four components of the biological profile are age, sex, race ancestry, and stature living height . For an unidentified body, each detail of the biological profile will limit the pool of potential...
Bibliography
Adams, B.J., and L.W. K nigsberg. Estimation of the most likely number of individuals from commingled human skeletal remains. Am J Phys Anthropol 125 2004 138-151. Adams, B.J., and R.C. Maves. Radiographic identification using the clavicle of an individual missing from the Vietnam conflict. J Forensic Sci 47 2002 369-373. Bass, B., and J. Jefferson. Death's Acre. New York G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2003. Bass, W.M. The occurrence of Japanese trophy skulls in the United States. J Forensic Sci 28 1983...
Types Of Trauma
It is the job of the medical examiner or coroner to determine cause and manner of death, not the anthropologist. The cause of death is the disease or injury responsible for initiating the lethal sequence of events, and it is usually based on the medical findings of a doctor. An example would be a gunshot wound of the head or atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease heart attack . There are numerous descriptive causes that can be recorded on a death certificate, depending on the findings at...
Picture Credits
4.3 Bradley J. Adams based on Gruelich and Pyle 1959 4.4 Bradley J. Adams photographs by Stephanie Mittak 4.5 Bradley J. Adams photographs by Stephanie Mittak 5.1 Infobase Publishing 6.1 Bradley J. Adams photograph by Stephanie Mittak 6.2 Bradley J. Adams photographs by Stephanie Mittak Cover Michael Donne, University of Ma PhotoDisc spot 6.4 Bradley J. Adams photographs by Stephanie Mittak 6.5 Bradley J. Adams 6.6 Courtesy of University of Tennessee, Dept of Anthropology 6.7 Courtesy of...