CULTURE Economy Dxj
Cycladites hunted and fished in addition to farming. Major crops were grains, grapes, and olives. Livestock included sheep, goats, and pigs. Cycladites also depended on trade with other peoples for some of their goods. Precursors of Long Distance Trade In the early Greek Bronze Age c. 3200-c. 3000 b.c.e. , longdistance trade began in earnest, starting in the island group of the Cyclades, which, located between the Greek mainland and Asia Minor, acted as a series of stepping stones between the...
Ariovistus
The Suebi became a threat to the Romans in the first century B.C.E., as recorded in the writings of Julius Caesar, when they invaded Gaul roughly modern France and Belgium to aid the Sequani, considered predominantly a Celtic people although perhaps part Germanic. The leader of the Suebi at the time was Ariovistus, who is referred to by the term Suebian rather than by the name of a particular tribe in historical texts. The main Suebian towns at the time were reportedly Argentorac on the Upper...
ce Jyp
882 Kiev and Novgorod are united under state of Kievan Rus. 1240 Mongols invade Kiev Mongols and Tatars establish Golden Horde near Volga River. 1405 Andrey Rublyov works on icons of Cathedral of the Annunciation in Moscow. 1480 Grand Prince Ivan III Ivan the Great of Moscow defeats Tatars. 1547 Czar Ivan IV Ivan the Terrible is crowned czar during his reign he annexes two Tatar cities, Kazan and Astrakhan, and expands Russian territory to the south. 1598 Rurik dynasty ends with the death of...
After Alexander
After Alexander's death his generals carved up his empire and founded their own states. Among them were two dynasties that held power through much of the eastern Mediterranean world the Ptolemies in Egypt and the Seleucids in Syria until the ascendancy of the Romans. With this continuing spread of Hellenism Greek culture , Koine Greek common Greek became an international language. Macedon, one of the divisions of the new order, with Greece as a dependency, went through a series of power...
Religion Eja
In general the Gauls shared many gods and religious practices with Celts in other regions of the Celtic world, such as the British Isles. The fact that the Druids oversaw judicial matters as well as religious underscores how little separation there was between sacred and secular life among Celts. Part of their influence over political affairs lay in their role as prophets and seers. The primary source of information for the Celtic gods of Gaul is the passage in Caesar's Commentarii de bello...
Ingush Ghalghaaj Ghalghai
The Ingush are a Caucasic-speaking people, living for the most part in the north-central caucasus region of southwestern Russia. Their North caucasic language is classified as part of the North-Central Nakh branch and related to the languages of the Chechens and the Bats of the nation of Georgia to the south in Asia. The cyrillic alphabet is used in the written form. The name Ingush was applied to them by the Russian Slavs, based on the name of the village Angusht their native name is...
bce Vsb
c. 1628-27 Eruption of Thera Santorini volcano c. 1600 Earliest burials of Grave Shaft B at Mycenae all palaces on Crete are destroyed but soon rebuilt. c. 1425 Palaces on Crete are destroyed by fire. c. 1400 Mycenaeans apparently take control of Crete. c. 1200 Widespread destruction of Mycenaean palaces leads to demise of Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages begin. climax. Although the Mycenaeans had a much richer material culture than did Greeks of earlier periods, and their profusion of...
Location of Some Iberian Tribes in the Third and Second Centuries bce
Major fortified Celtiberian settlement Major fortified Celtiberian settlement rather than the return of dense forests that occurred elsewhere in Europe. Despite the challenges, people here continued making masterful figurative art, paintings on open-air limestone outcrops that are found in the Spanish Levant of archers hunting red deer and other animals. Other pictures show figures climbing trees for honey, in one example carrying a collecting pot and being greeted by a swarm of bees. Other...
rSYA Dargwas
A1 Akhvakhs A2 Bagulals A3 Botlikhs A4 Chamalals A5 Godoberis A6 Karatas A7 Tindis D1 Didos D2 Bezhtas D3 Hunzibs D4 Khavarshis L1 Aguls L2 Arch is L3 Kryz L4 Rutuls 15 Tabarascans L6 Tsakhurs 17 Udis In the South Caucasus in the third-seventh centuries, the Persians under the rule of the Sassanians were dominant, but other peoples, such as the Armenians, competed with them. In the sixth century a confederation of Turks known as Goktuks built an empire that extended from Mongolia to the Black...
Marcomanni
The Marcomanni are classified among those Germanics known as Suebi. In the course of their history, they lived in present-day Germany, Czech Republic, and Austria. Along with other Germanic tribes, they battled the Romans in what is referred to as the Marcomannic or Marcomannian Wars in the second century c.e. The Marcomanni are thought to have settled along the Main River, a tributary of the Rhine, in present-day south-central Germany by the first century b.c.e. In 8 to 6 b.c.e., they settled...
Developments North of the Carpathians
In the Polish region north of the Carpathians significant changes in material culture, from the mid-seventh century, seem to signal a departure from the simple Slavic culture of the past. In southern Poland more accomplished pottery was made, finished on what is called a slow wheel that allowed for a more regular shape. Pottery was decorated and made in a greater variety of shapes influences from south of the Carpathians are apparent. Dwellings continued to be of the familiar sunken-floor type,...
Norwegians nationality people of Norway
Norway is flanked by sweden to the east, by the Norwegian Sea to the west, by the Barents sea to the north, and by the North sea and the Skagerrak Strait to the south. Additional Norwegian territory includes Jan Mayen, a volcanic island Svalbard, an archipelago in the Arctic Ocean the unoccupied Bouvet Island of the Atlantic Ocean and Queen Maud Land in the Antarctic continent. About one-third of Norway lies north of the Arctic Circle. The country's land area is 148,896 square miles. Norway's...
Unelli Unelles Venelli
The Unelli are classified as a Celtic tribe. They lived in Gaul around present-day Coutances in northwestern France and are discussed as Celts or Gauls. They were allied with the Aulerci and the Esuvii. The Romans referred to them along with other tribes as Armoricans, that is, tribes living between the Seine and Loire on or near the Atlantic Ocean in the region of Armorica roughly present-day Brittany and eastern Normandy . The region was occupied by forces under Julius Caesar in 55 B.C.E.
Ireland S Golden Age
Ireland's Golden Age began in the sixth century and lasted well into the ninth century. Ireland was known as an Island of Saints and Scholars. The rise of Christian monastic schools in the latter half of the sixth century led to a flowering of literature and learning in early Ireland. The scribes and monks of these schools played a critical role in preserving the West's written heritage by copying and preserving the texts of the ancient world. From these monastic centers Irish missionaries...
Celtic Migrations
During the large-scale migrations of the continental celts of the fifth and fourth centuries b.c.e. some Celtic groups may have entered Ireland as well. After this period Irish craftsmen were strongly influenced by the La Tene style, although reinterpreting it to create their own style. Ireland shows other influences from the continent as well, but this is not a new phenomenon, as mentioned. There is still much disagreement as to the extent of celtic migration to Ireland. The weight of...
CE Efa
1227 German crusaders from Riga invade Estonia. 1346 Danes sell northern Estonia to German Teutonic Order as result of native rebellions. 1400 Tallinn emerges as important center for commerce and culture. 1535 Lutheran catechism is translated into Estonian. 1558 Sweden seizes northern Estonia. 1629 Sweden controls all of Estonia, expelling Russians. 1686 New Testament is translated into southern Estonian. 1715 New Testament is translated into northern Estonian. 1739 Anton Thor Helle combines...
Abricantes Abricanti Abricantui
The Abricantes are classified as a Celtic tribe. They lived in Gaul around present-day Avranches in northwestern France and are discussed as Celts or Gauls. The Romans referred to them along with other tribes as Armoricans, that is, tribes living between the seine and Loire on or near the Atlantic Ocean in the region of Armorica roughly present-day Brittany and eastern Normandy , occupied by forces under Julius Caesar in 55 b.c.e. Legedia on the site of Avranches became a capital of a North...
Harold I First King of a United Norway
Harold I has been referred to in English texts as Harold Fairhair or Finehair or the Fairhaired. The Norwegian version of his name is Harald Farhager. As the Viking sagas tell it, he vowed not to cut or comb his hair until he had become sole ruler over Norway. His descriptive name is also translated as Shockhead. Little is known of his early life. He was said to have been born in about 860 C.E. to Hafdan the Black and his second wife, Asa of Agder. At his father's death Harold inherited three...
Campani Campanians
The Campani are classified as an Italic tribe. They lived in the present-day region of Campania in southwestern Italy around present-day Naples. They were an Oscan-speaking people who had coalesced into a nation by the mid-fifth century b.c.e., after the Etruscans lost their power in the region. They formed the Campanian League of city-states in about 420 b.c.e. In 343 b.c.e. the First Samnite War erupted over a dispute between the Samnites and the Sidicini, allies of the Campani. The Samnites...
Christian Art
After the fifth century c.e. while the La Tene style continued to influence Irish visual arts provincial Roman motifs became important. These included palmette derivatives and fleshy C-shaped scrolls called peltae. Typical La Tene features that continued to be used were a trumpet-shaped scroll and the bird-headed spiral, which sometimes holds a human head in its mouth. Such motifs can be found even on crosses. In metalwork sunken areas filled with red enamel often set off raised metal spirals....
Catuvellauni
The Catuvellauni are classified as a Celtic tribe. They lived in Britain in the present-day county of Hertfordshire in southern England and are discussed as Celts or as Britons. With the Atrebates and Trinovantes, they were one of the three most powerful tribal kingdoms in Britain in the first centuries b.c.e. and c.e. The Catuvellauni leader Cassivellaunus perhaps of the Cassi resisted the Romans under Julius Caesar in 54 b.c.e. After their defeat they established trade contacts and competed...
CULTURAL IDENTITY Oro
Modern Norwegian cultural identity has been marked by the resurgence in interest in the culture of the ancestral Vikings and in folk music and art that began with the romantic nationalist movement of the latter 19th century. The composer Edvard Hagerup Grieg, with his evocative arrangements of Norwegian folk music both for piano and for orchestra, brought out a sense of the Norwegian national character, sometimes lusty and spirited, as in the Norwegian Dances, at others dour or wistful. Parts...
Ilmen Slavs Novgorod Slavs Slovens
The Ilmen Slavs were a tribe of Eastern Slavs, living in the vicinity of Lake Ilmen in present-day northwestern Russia. Although the name Slovens has been associated with them, they have a different tradition from the Southern Slavic Slovenes. Related to the neighboring Severians, the Ilmen Slavs were centered in the vicinity of Novgorod, which was probably built under the impetus of Vikings and became an important trading center. In 862 c.e. the supposed founder of the Novgorod principality...
Religion Vdm
The Mongol traditional religion was shamanis-tic. Many modern Mongols also practice Lamaism, a branch of Buddhism. many peoples who held power for a time in Thomas T. Allsen. Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 2001 . Christopher P. Atwood. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire New York Facts On File, 2004 . James Chambers. The Devil's Horsemen The Mongol Invasion of Europe London Phoenix, 2001 . David Christian. A History of Russia, Central...
AngloSaxon Invasion and the Survival of the
Britons Myth and Legend The Anglo-Saxon incursions had begun after Germanic foederati federates , allies of the Romans, were invited to settle in Britain as a reward for their service in the fourth century c.e. According to a traditional story recorded by the British writer Gildas, Germanic tribesmen, mostly Angles, Jutes, and Saxons, were invited by a British king named Vortigern to help defend his kingdom against the Picts in the mid-fifth century. It is not known whether or not this really...
CULTURE see also Celts Economy 1
Farming Prehistoric domestic artifacts have rarely been found by archaeologists in Ireland. Rotary quern stones have been found and also a wooden plow that would have been pulled by oxen. On analogy with Britain, dairying would have been common in Ireland, as well as growing of grain crops such as corn, oats, barley, wheat, and rye. Almost all farming was probably subsistence-based, and there was very little trade in food. Trade By about 2000 b.c.e. a flourishing metal industry had developed...
CULTURE see also Celts Economy
The Celtiberians, as had other Celts, had agricultural and herding economies. The exchange of goods through trade was also important, although the Celtiberians, living inland, were not a direct part of the extensive Mediterranean trading activity. Yet they traded with the Iberian peoples living to their east, some of whom maintained port cities. The resemblance of the Celto-Iberian language to Irish Gaelic may imply some sort of contact between the two regions Irish copper and gold had been...
Dalmatians people of Dalmatia
The name Dalmatians has been used in various historical writings to refer to the people living in Dalmatia, the coastal region of the Adriatic, extending across present-day Bosnia and Herzegovenia, Serbia and Montenegro, and Croatia. Dalmatia, inhabited by the Illyrians, was occupied by Macedonians in the mid-fourth century b.c.e., and by Romans late in the first century b.c.e. In the fifth century c.e.Germanics under Odoacer of the Sciri conquered the region but soon lost it to the Byzantines....
Catalanians Catalans people of Catalonia
The name Catalanians refers to people now or formerly living in the historical region or autonomous community of Catalonia, situated in present-day northeastern Spain. Over the centuries the Iberians, Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, and Visigoths all had a presence there. Catalan or Barcelona was established as an independent county of the Franks by the ninth century c.e. and eventually extended its territories beyond the Pyrenees. It united with Aragon in 1137, and, since the 13th...
Rivals of the Lombards
The arrival of the Lombards in the region led to the eventual downfall of the Gepids. in 547 the Byzantine emperor Justinian I granted the Lombards permission to settle in the provinces of Pannonia and Noricum roughly modern eastern Austria as foederati federates, or auxiliary troops . At first the Gepids managed to use diplomacy to stay at peace with them, and a number of royal intermarriages took place. Through 567 there were a series of five wars between the two peoples. The Byzantines and...
Pannonians people of Pannonia
The name Pannonians refers to people living in the ancient Roman province of Pannonia, south and west of the Danube, most of it in present-day Hungary. At its widest extent Pannonia included territory in Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, and Serbia. Pannonia was first inhabited by the Illyrians and then invaded by the Romans in 35 b.c.e. and conquered by 99 c.e. In about 103 c.e. the province was divided into Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior. One sees the term Pannonian Slavs in reference to...
Esths Estes Esthonians Estonians
The Esths were a Finnic-speaking tribe, living in present-day Estonia. They are classified as Baltic or Western Finnics, a subgroup of Finno-Ugrians, as distinct from the Volga or Eastern Finnics. The Esths are among the ancestors of modern Estonians see Estonians nationality . To the south were the Livs, also Finnic speaking, and the Letts, a Baltic-speaking people. The ancestral Finnics are thought to have reached the Baltic region by 3000 b.c.e. Perhaps as early as the first century c.e....
Suleiman The Lawgiver
Suleiman also Suleyman was born at Trabzon in present-day Turkey in 1494, the son of Selim I. He became emperor as Suleiman I. In 1521 Suleiman captured Belgrade, at that time a Hungarian city, and the next year he forced the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem, a military and religious order, from the island of Rhodes in the Aegean Sea. In 1526 in another invasion of Hungary he killed King Louis II and defeated his forces at the Battle of Mohacs, and then in 1529 he unsuccessfully besieged...
Dorians Aeolians and Ionians
Many Greeks fled the Dark Ages that enveloped the mainland after the Mycenaean collapse, emigrating eastward through the Aegean and settling in Asia Minor. Between the rude and warlike Heroic Age, a poetic picture of the past drawn during the desperation of the Dark Age, and the heyday of learning and refinement of classical Athens, the two loci of modern understanding of the ancient Greeks, the Hellenes lived scattered through the Aegean, divided into three basic ethnic groups by dialect,...
Italics Italic peoples
The term Italic, applied by linguists, is used variously. In its broadest sense it refers to cultural characteristics relating to all the peoples of ancient and modern Italy, regardless of language. Yet it is most often applied to an Indo-European language family, which includes Latin and related ancient languages, as well as modern languages descended from Latin although some scholars reserve the term Italic for the ancient languages only . And even when applied in its narrow sense that is,...
Veps Vepses Vepsa Vepsians Ves Vepslaine Chukhar Chukhna Chuhonets Chudes
The Veps are a Finnic-speaking people, who live in present-day northwestern Russia see Finno-Ugrians Russians nationality . Their ancestral territory was around Lake Onega and the headwaters of the oyat River. There now exist three defined groups The Aanis-Veps, or Northern Veps inhabit Karelia near Aanisjarv, to the south of Petroskoi the Central Veps, the largest group, live on the River Oyat in the St. Petersburg region. The Southern Veps live on the Leedjogi River in the eastern part of the...
Vestini
The Vestini are classified as an Italic tribe. They lived along the Aterno River in the present-day region of Abruzzi in east-central Italy in the valleys of the Apennines. Their origins are unknown. They were perhaps descendants of migratory Illyrians who fused with Italics the Vestinian language was one of the Sabellian subgroup of the Oscan branch of Italic languages, related to Aequian, Marrucinian, Marsian, Paelignian, Sabine, and Volscian. Pinna modern Penne was their principal town they...
Aduatuci Aduatici Atuatuci Audatici
The Aduatuci are classified as a combined Celtic-Germanic tribe that is, as both Celts and Germanics. In general, the distinction between celtic and Germanic tribes in northern Gaul and east of the Rhine in the first centuries b.c.e. and C.E., based for the most part on ancient Roman writings, is difficult to make, since Roman classifications are often arbitrary and cannot be confirmed by other evidence. They lived in Gaul in present-day northeastern Belgium and southeastern Netherlands and are...
Etruscans time line
c. 750 Foundation of loose confederation of Etruscan city-states eighth century Etruscans expand trade routes and settlements southward, controlling rich Campanian plain. mid-sixth century Persian pressure on Greeks causes waves of refugees to Italy. 540 Etruscans, with Phoenician support, defeat Phocaeans at sea and force abandonment of Alalia in Corsica. 525 Etruscans lead unsuccessful expedition with native mercenaries against Greek city of Cumae. fifth century Growing competition exerted on...
Aequi Equi Equians Aequiculi
The Aequi are classified as ITALICS, probably a branch tribe of SABINES of the central Apennines in present-day Italy. The Aequi came to inhabit hill country in northern parts of the region of ancient Latium part of modern Lazio in present-day west-central Italy north of the Hernici and Volsci. They were early enemies of the Romans. The Aequi migrated from the central Apennines into northern Latium during the sixth century b.c.e., as the power of the Etruscans began to wane. The Aequian...
Question of a Roman Invasion of Ireland
Although Ireland was never subjected to large-scale invasion and conquest by the Romans, the island was definitely within the Roman sphere of influence, and the Romans may have staged military incursions there that were never chronicled. Roman artifacts are known in Ireland. The fact that areas, particularly Leinster in the southeast, where Roman artifacts and even Roman-style burials and cemeteries have been found, lack much native material may suggest substantial intrusions there that caused...
Bastetani
The Bastetani are classified as Iberians. They lived in the present-day coastal Almer a region and the mountainous Granada region of Andalusia in southeastern Spain east of the Turdetani. They are believed to have had extensive contacts with the Phoenicians, who founded trading colonies among them at the end of the second millennium B.c.E. They remained one of the more populous tribes during the occupation of the Carthaginians in the third century b.c.e. and that of the Romans starting in the...
Allobroges Allobrogi Allobrogae
The Allobroges are classified as a Celtic tribe. They lived in Gaul near Lake Geneva in present-day southeastern France, separated from the Helvetii by the Rh ne River, and are discussed as Celts or Gauls. Their town Vienne was an important trade center. Along with their allies the Arverni, they were conquered in 121 b.c.e. by the Romans. The Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus given the honorific title of Allobrogicus in commemoration of his victory. The Allobroges became allies of the Romans...
Religion Hmv
Funeral Rites and Burials The Scythians practiced funeral rites that seem to have been common throughout the Eurasian steppes and were practiced in later centuries by Huns, Mongols, and others. Herodotus mentions the custom of gashing arms, forehead, and nose in honor of the deceased, and the immolation and burial of servants and horses around the corpse. Herodotus described in dramatic detail the funeral rites of a Scythian king. The king's body was stuffed and waxed and taken on a procession...
Avar Influences in the Seventh Century
A zone between the Danube and the southern Carpathians east of Bohemia has cemeteries where both Avars and Slavs were buried. Some of these are large one near Bratislava has a thousand graves. Most of these were inhumations. Some burials had grave goods, either Avar or Slav a typical artifact of the latter were S-shaped temple rings. Pottery was decorated by incising the wet clay with a comb-shaped implement to make parallel lines, either straight or in squig-gles, or by stamping. Some pots...
Lexovii Lexobians
The Lexovii are classified as a celtic tribe. They lived in Gaul around present-day Lisieux in northwestern France and are discussed as Celts or Gauls. The Romans referred to them along with other tribes as Armoricans, that is, tribes living between the Seine and Loire on or near the Atlantic Ocean in the region of Armorica roughly present-day Brittany and eastern Normandy , occupied by forces under Julius Caesar in 55 b.c.e. Noviomagus on the site of Lisieux became a civitas capital in Roman...
language Dnf
known as Lucania, corresponds to present-day Basilicata and part of Calabria. An earlier name for the region was oenotria, the homeland of the non-Indo-European-speaking Enotri. Some scholars group the Lucani with the Samnites, who also spoke Oscan dialects of Italic. Lucanian cities included Atena Lucana, Grumentum, and Teggiano. The Lucani were allies of the Brutii living to their south and made war on colonies founded by Greeks. In about 400 b.c.e. the Lucani captured Paestum, a Greek city...
Ubii Ubians Utii
The Ubii are classified as a Germanic tribe. They originally lived east of the Rhine in present-day western Germany south of the Sugambri. Traditional enemies of the Suebi, the Ubii became allies of the Romans under Julius Caesar in the first century b.c.e. In 39 b.c.e. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa established a Roman colony for them, Oppidum Ubiorum, which was later named Colonia Agrippina, after his daughter, Vipsania Agrippina. She became the wife of Germanicus Caesar and accompanied him on his...
Ruthenes Ruthenians Ruthanians
The name Ruthenes or Ruthenians has been used variously with regard to the Slavs. It has been applied to all the Eastern Slavs, that is, those Slavic-speaking peoples living in present-day Ukraine, Belarus, and western Russia. Among them are tribes such as the Dregovichians, Drevlyans, Dulebians, Krivi- CHIANS, POLIANIANS, POLOCHANIANS, RADIMI- chians, Severians, Tivertsians, and Ulichians. Most of these peoples were under the suzerainty of the Rus of the Kievan Rus principality in the second...
Vandals Vandali Vandili
The Vandals were a tribe of ancient Germanics whose migrations over the centuries took them farther than any other Germanic people, except the Vikings from eastern Europe, through central and western Europe, all the way to North Africa in the fifth century c.e. They were among the principal enemies of the Romans, sacking Rome in 455. The Vandals are thought to have originated on the northern Jutland Peninsula in present-day Denmark, although some scholars, on the basis of similarity of...